Notes On Trading Profile And Goals - 1845 Words

Trading profile and goals Generally there is an enormous amount of information available to the traders. So in order to trade profitably traders should take only essential information into consideration for analysis. In this paper we trade a portfolio of options, namely 10 BHPC98 puts and 10 BHPC88 calls both with the same strike date and price as evidenced in Appendix B. The trading strategy we will employ is called a â€Å"long straddle† and is usually amenable to day traders owing to the availability of stop loss orders on the Commsec platform. Information such as companies’ circumstances, media announcements, public reports and historical data are all important information available to establish a trading profile and goals. For example, this trade works best when an imminent announcement is pending that increases implied volatility or impacts on the share price significantly. One such occasion would be a half year reports due out in February 2016. Thus, in the process of building the trade w e distill our trading profile. This trade requires fundamental analysis (and completely avoids technical analysis), which is based on traditional economic theory and focuses on the fundamental value inside a company. Usually this involves taking the company’s macro-economic form, future opportunities and operating conditions as measurements to estimate their market value. With this information we can determine the worth of At the Money options (ATM) required to set up the long straddle.Show MoreRelatedAccounting Finance Questions1228 Words   |  5 Pagesinclude audit reports. * Advantages – * Access to capital for growth – listing gives you the opportunity to raise capital to fund acquisitions and/or organic growth. * Higher public and investor profile – listing generally raises your organisation’s public profile with customers, suppliers, investors and the media. Your organisation may also be covered in analyst reports and may be included in an index. * Institutional investment – public listing means your organisationRead MoreFinancial Research Report On Financial Management1711 Words   |  7 Pagesreceiving dividend payments over common stockholders (Weygandt, Kimmel, Kieso, 2012). Investor Profile There are four types of investors; the conservative investor, the balanced investor, the growth investor, and the aggressive investor (see Appendix A for profile characteristics). As financial manager, it is very important to understand what type of investor the client is by determining their financial goals, the amount of risk they are willing to take, their starting point, and how long they are willingRead MoreSwot Analysis : Hedge Equities1723 Words   |  7 PagesCOMPANY PROFILE 2.a Background And Inception Of The Company â€Å"Hedge Equities† is one of the leading Financial Services Company in India, specialized in offering a wide range of financial products, tailor made to suit individual needs. As a first step to make their presence Global, Hedge Equities have initiated operations in Middle East to cater to the vast Non Resident Indian (NRI) population in that region. Ever since their inception, they have spanned their presence all over India through theirRead MoreNatural Resources And Environmental Regulations1323 Words   |  6 Pagesamongst its jurisdictions (Spain Country Profile). Based on information provided by the Spain Country Profile, the regulations being implemented nationally and jurisdictionally are aimed at reducing greenhouse gasses and creating environmental improvements to the tourism sector. Spain has put a large influence on improving the impact of the large amount of traffic due to the inflow of tourists through the creation of the Tourism Plan 2020 (Spain Country Profi le). III.II Major Industries AccordingRead MoreIf Only Hp Knew What Hp Knows2762 Words   |  12 Pagesits knowledge is dispersed across business units that have little perceived need to share with one another. In such an environment, it’s no surprise that knowledge management efforts have proliferated. Three notable ones have been: the â€Å"Trainers’ Trading Post†; the â€Å"Connex† guide to internal experts; and â€Å"HP Network News,† a resource for HP dealers. All have been successful, leading managers to the conclusion that knowledge, like the firm that houses it, may not require a central management functionRead MoreFemale Executives And Women During The C Suite1269 Words   |  6 Pageswomen in their highest paid senior executive positions and women make up only 19% of director positions. In fact, in the SP 100, only 8% of the highest paid senior executive positions are held by women. The statistics are alarming, yet two high-profile technology companies, Yahoo.com and Hewlett Packard, have two women in the Chief Executive Officer position, Meg Whitman and Marissa Meyar. Both Ms. Whitman and Ms. Meyar inherited prominent positions and both have had to lead significant businessRead More1. Review the Case Study – Housefriends Homewares (Appendix 1) or One Supplied by Your Assessor2749 Words   |  11 Pagesreport your operational plan to head office to have the following completed by the extended trading deadline. 3. Read the profiles in this assessment. In pairs, adopt the role of Manager for that Employee (Marie or Tony). 4. Individually develop goals, KPIs and tasks for the Employee you have selected. Document these in the Employee’s Performance Management Plan (Appendix 3). 5. Prepare role-play notes to plan the topics you will discuss and outcomes you hope to achieve, these will assist youRead MoreTotal Qaulity Management1446 Words   |  6 Pagesexporter to the worldwide. On the other hand Toyota executive’s sets a target in 2002 to have 15% of the global auto industry by 2010, in other meanings that it should beat general motors as it is ranked the biggest car manufacturer. In order to reach its goal it should increase by 50%. Therefore it should open its branches in United States, China and Asia and to work on bringing new models as much as they could to the market. Toyota was proud of itself to gain the world’s biggest car company. There areRead MoreBSBMGT502B Assessment 1 Housfriends2733 Words   |  11 Pagesto report your operational plan to head office to have the following completed by the extended trading deadline. 3. Read the profiles in this assessment. In pairs, adopt the role of Manager for that Employee (Marie or Tony). 4. Individually develop goals, KPIs and tasks for the Employee you have selected. Document these in the Employee’s Performance Management Plan (Appendix 3). 5. Prepare role-play notes to plan the topics you will discuss and outcomes you hope to achieve, these will assist you toRead MoreThe Role Of Hedge Fund For Financial Market Essay1029 Words   |  5 Pages1940s as a long – short hedged equity vehicles, the first hedge funds was known as attempt to against the downside risk of a bear market by shorting the market, but this definition has already gone. Nowadays, hedge funds are more likely understood as goal to maximize return on investment. Therefore, this report will show clearly what is hedge funds. What is hedge funds what is the purpose of it The use of hedge funds in personal financial portfolios has grown dramatically since the start of 21st

Children in Horror Free Essays

With the release of Orphan upon us, it seems as good a time as any to consider the role that kids have played in the horror genre. Other groups have fairly consistent, even ritualized roles in films. Men as antagonists are usually the threat of aggressive male sexuality, wielding phallic weaponry and chasing down hapless female victims. We will write a custom essay sample on Children in Horror or any similar topic only for you Order Now Women are either the sexualized teenaged victim, the virginal survivor, or in some classic horror, the threat of female social and sexual empowerment to male hegemony. But children in horror movies have not had such a stable role. There are, however, three major trends in the way children fit into horror plots. We’ll call them â€Å"the silent witness,† â€Å"the creepy little kid,† and â€Å"the un-victim. † The silent witness is used most commonly in ghost films like The Messengers and Mirrors. These characters often don’t speak at all (perhaps due to some earlier trauma or developmental shortfall) or they only speak in short, cryptic messages. The driving notion behind these characters is that in their innocence they don’t know to be scared of the ghosts and ghoulies, or in other cases, they retain some knowledge of trust or secret about life that we as adults have forgotten. Either way, these characters represent an almost covetous reverence for the ideal of childhood innocence. The sound of the child’s laughter is usually central to at least one scene, reminding us again of the child’s innocence, but also implying that the child is not alone. One of the most elegant, though not central, uses of this character type is in Close Encounters of the Third Kind in the scene when the child, Barry, goes missing. Of course everyone’s favorite use of children in horror movies is the creepy little kid. This is the category that Orphan falls under and also incorporates a lot of ghost films like The Grudge and The Unborn, but it can also include demon-child movies like The Omen. The protagonists of these films are often the parents, or adopted parents, of the creepy kid in question, and these films play subliminally on oedipal anxieties. In films where the kid is a ghost, it will sometimes be â€Å"the good ghost† who is trying to warn and protect the other characters. But even if the child ghost is not benevolent, it’s still usually not the embodiment of pure rage that ghosts of adult men tend to be. Instead, the threat they pose is usually more akin to a trapped animal, and often these characters are associated with a specific animal or take on animalistic traits. Whether alive or dead though, creepy little girls have become iconic within the horror genre. With sunken eyes, perfect hair, and always the same style of going-to-church dress, the image of the creepy little girl has become standardized, but the fact that it still remains creepy while being so familiar is a testament to its ability to strike a deep psychological chord with the audience. In many ways the creepy little girl is the flip side of the silent witness character. Both imply that young children know more about their surroundings than they let on, but whereas the silent witness can’t communicate, the creepy little girl won’t, inevitably to nefarious ends. Where the silent witness represents the purity and innocence of childhood, the creepy little kid represents all the cruelty and selfishness that children are capable of. Finally, there is what I like to call the un-victim. These are the kids in movies who get chased by the bad guys, but everyone knows they’re going to live through the end of the film. Classic examples would be Tommy Jarvis in Friday the 13th Part IV, or Reggie in Part V. A more recent example would be the two kids in Signs. These kids are un-victims because they’re threatened through the entire movie, but never get killed off because killing a kid in a movie is going too far for most filmmakers (though apparently not for Lars Von Trier in Antichrist). As a result, these kids end up being a sort of safety blanket for the viewer. We know that they’re safe, and therefore we allow them to provide us some security and even the occasional moment of levity. For many horror fans though, these kids turn into an annoyance very quickly (Dakota Fanning in War of the Worlds). This is of course not at all comprehensive. Films that break these molds are often far better off for it, as just in general movies that buck or reverse trends and stereotypes are usually more creative and better made movies. Plus, this summary does not include demonic pregnancy movies like Rosemary’s Baby, or movies aimed at children like Gremlins. And then there are a few movies that merge and meld these tropes together. Stanley Kubrick’s The Shining has not only the prototypical creepy little girls, but Danny Torrance incorporates all three character tropes. He is himself a creepy little kid at times, but at other times he acts as the silent witness. But then in the third act when the emphasis of the film begins to shift towards Jack’s insanity, Danny becomes an un-victim. So this is by no means a bible of children in horror movies, but it is an interesting topic to contemplate how children factor into a genre that is specifically meant to not be seen by them. Adults have always had a very interesting and compelling relationship with notions of childhood, and it’s certainly not insignificant that children, in one role or another, find their way so consistently into the horror genre, where all the fears and anxieties of the human psyche find their voice. How to cite Children in Horror, Essay examples

Customer profitability free essay sample

Pilgrim Bank (A) is a case that analyzes customer profitability in a retail banking setting. It explores a business phenomenon common to the retail banking industry and, within this context, acquaints you with the types of managerial questions that can be made by data analysis. As a recently hired analyst, Alan Green (your group’s role) has data on a sample of customers and must make recommendations about whether the bank should charge fees or offer rebates for use of the online channel. The data consist of customer-level information on demographics, online channel use, and profitability. The dataset is now available for downloading on our course blackboard website. The first worksheet is â€Å"Definition of Variables† and the second worksheet is the dataset. Link to purchase Pilgrim Bank Case: https://cb. hbsp. harvard. edu:443/cbmp/access/25928453 Requirements: Write a business report summarizing your analysis and findings. The report should include the answers to the following assigned questions, which are useful when Alan Green (or your group) meets with Ravi Raman next Monday morning. We will write a custom essay sample on Customer profitability or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Remember to support/justify your answers. How do retail banks make money from their customers? How much variation is there in profit across customers? Based on this, what do you recommend the bank do in terms of matching service levels to customer profit levels? 2. Based on the sample of customer data for 1999, what can you conclude about average customer profitability for pilgrim Bank’s entire customer population? 3. Is the difference in average profitability between online and offline customers in the sample indicative of a meaningful difference in probability across these groups for Pilgrim Bank’s entire customer population? What role does customer demographics play in analyzing customer profitability for online and offline customers? 1 5. What is your recommendation to the senior management team in terms of Pilgrim Bank’s online channel pricing strategy? Should the bank charge fees, offer rebates, or do nothing in regards to pricing for online channel use? As always, be careful when making recommendations to the senior management team. You should provide enough explanations/justifications with data analysis (statistic tests). The main text of your report should NOT be longer than SIX pages (double-spaced, 1-1. 5 inch margins, Times New Roman 12 pt font). You can provide some results of your data analysis in appendix which will not count toward the maximum page length. Please have ONE member of your group submit the assignment to both Blackboard and to turnitin. com (course ID: 7434367; enrollment password: winter2014) by Friday April 4 at 11:00pm. Remember to include the group cover page with your submission. Please see information posted on Blackboard for detailed submission instructions.

Todays Woman Vs. Yesterdays Essays - Ibsen Family, Trifles

Today's Woman Vs. Yesterday's Women of today have come a long way since the periods portrayed in the dramas "Trifles," written by Susan Glaspell, and "Doll House," written by Henrik Ibsen. In both dramas, the characters played by women were portrayed as nothing more than property which should be seen and not heard. This is typical of society in the late 1800's and early 1900's, which is the time setting in which these dramas take place. In the drama "Trifles," the male characters known as Henry Peters (sheriff) and George Henderson (county attorney) strut around like roosters making lewd, sexist remarks while investigating the murder of farmer John Wright. The two farm women, Mrs. Hale and Mrs. Peters, while forced to listen to such barbaric comments, actually end up solving the murder. Throughout the drama, the male characters are made to walk around the farm house looking for clues. Unfortunately, they do this from a male's point of view and are completely oblivious to the unseen environment around them. During this time, the two ladies sit silently conversing between themselves about the tragedy, and actually find clues to the hows and whys of the suspect without really looking. The female characters in this drama are written to be very perceptive and understanding about what happens in everyday life in a country home, since they too are country homemakers. With this information, which the men do not share, they notice small insignificant looking items which appear to be out of place. Through deductive reasoning, the women were able to figure out that John Wright's wife had been abused for many years. Not physical abuse, but severe mental abuse. The abuse seemed to reach its zenith when her husband killed her canary by ringing the bird's neck. This signifies a symbol of the life and freedom she once had. In the drama "Doll House," the main character named Nora is a woman who has gone through life being treated as if she were a "china doll." She was not unlike a china doll to be placed high on a pedestal, never to be heard from except when spoken to, or when asked to entertain her husband Torvald, their children or a group of Torvald's friends. As the story progresses, Ibsen creates a climax in the theme when Torvald finds out that Nora forged her father's name on a document to obtain money for a trip to Italy. This trip to Italy was necessary in order to save his life. Society had a certain stigmatism about the women of the late 1800's. Women were not thought to have been as smart as men, and were therefore not expected to understand the complicated world of money and especially the repercussions of getting a loan from places other than a banking institution. At this point, Nora receives a miracle she has not been looking forward to. The miracle turned out to be a test in which she finds out that their storybook love is not as strong to Torvald as she had imagined and hoped for. This particular scene in the drama gave the impression of morning sun rays tapping on the petals on a morning glory. With this, the reader begins to witness the blossoming of a flower. Nora's eyes open for what appears to be the firs! t time in her life, and she makes the decision to leave her life and family in search for a new beginning. For a male author born and raised in the 1800's, Ibsen does a fine job of looking at a relationship of this kind from a woman's point of view. However, women of today would not put up with either one of these situations. The women of today are more assertive and demanding than they used to be. There are many women today who are just as good if not better than their male counterparts. Some of the most successful people in today's society are women. With the passage of the right for women to vote and the women's movement of the late sixties and early seventies, women have deservingly "Come a Long Way Baby."

Free Essays on Willie Nelson

When Bob Dylan wrote â€Å"he who is not busy being born is busy dying,† he could easily have been talking about Willie Nelson. Willie Nelson is one of contemporary music’s most genuine icons. On the verge of reaching the 70’s, the singer, songwriter, guitarist and actor remains an upbeat creative soul. Nelson’s career spans over more than 35 years, making 100 albums, and spending a large majority of time on the road. Nelson’s life is easily portrayed on his first album for Island Records ‘Spirit.’ It was recorded with his friends and family in his home base studio Perdernales Studios, right outside of this very city, Austin, TX. Less is more is proved in the setting of Nelson’s Spirit, featuring a totally new crop of Nelson originals. It is a song cycle where the evasive simple setting brings an even greater depth and enchanting potency to the lyrics, which features another Texas legend Johnny Gimble on fiddle, sister Bobbie Nelson on piano, family member Jody Payne on rhythm guitar, and Nelson’s voice, songs and guitar. This soulsearching album on love and spirituality, uses country, traditional pop and gospel music to create something entirely original. ‘Spirit’ was made at a very significant time in Nelson’s career. The 1990’s was a decade where Nelson made the headlines many times. He had problems with the IRS (he settled his dept in 1993), a marijuana bust, and his departure from Col! umbia Records. In the recent years, he has recorded a string of critically acclaimed albums, such as ‘Across the Borderline,’ ‘Moonlight Becomes You’ and ‘Just One Love.’ He also recorded two other albums with the Highwaymen- Johnny Cash, Waylon Jennings and Kris Kristofferson. An alternative rock tribute album titled ‘Twisted Willie’ was also made. Nelson continues to tour with his band Willie Nelson & Family and the Highwaymen, as well. Nelson was the first country artist signed by Island Records in their ... Free Essays on Willie Nelson Free Essays on Willie Nelson When Bob Dylan wrote â€Å"he who is not busy being born is busy dying,† he could easily have been talking about Willie Nelson. Willie Nelson is one of contemporary music’s most genuine icons. On the verge of reaching the 70’s, the singer, songwriter, guitarist and actor remains an upbeat creative soul. Nelson’s career spans over more than 35 years, making 100 albums, and spending a large majority of time on the road. Nelson’s life is easily portrayed on his first album for Island Records ‘Spirit.’ It was recorded with his friends and family in his home base studio Perdernales Studios, right outside of this very city, Austin, TX. Less is more is proved in the setting of Nelson’s Spirit, featuring a totally new crop of Nelson originals. It is a song cycle where the evasive simple setting brings an even greater depth and enchanting potency to the lyrics, which features another Texas legend Johnny Gimble on fiddle, sister Bobbie Nelson on piano, family member Jody Payne on rhythm guitar, and Nelson’s voice, songs and guitar. This soulsearching album on love and spirituality, uses country, traditional pop and gospel music to create something entirely original. ‘Spirit’ was made at a very significant time in Nelson’s career. The 1990’s was a decade where Nelson made the headlines many times. He had problems with the IRS (he settled his dept in 1993), a marijuana bust, and his departure from Col! umbia Records. In the recent years, he has recorded a string of critically acclaimed albums, such as ‘Across the Borderline,’ ‘Moonlight Becomes You’ and ‘Just One Love.’ He also recorded two other albums with the Highwaymen- Johnny Cash, Waylon Jennings and Kris Kristofferson. An alternative rock tribute album titled ‘Twisted Willie’ was also made. Nelson continues to tour with his band Willie Nelson & Family and the Highwaymen, as well. Nelson was the first country artist signed by Island Records in their ...

Assess the View That Traditional Class Identities

These groups are the working class, middle class and upper class. However now some believe there isn’t this social class division within society and that everyone is equal. People that would agree traditional class identities are no longer important are postmodernists. These have the view that class no longer really matters in modern Britain and that now people no longer identify themselves according to their class background. Clarke and Saunders (1991) would agree with the view of postmodernists. They suggest that classes have become fragmented into many different groups and now they have been replaced with other influences such as gender and lifestyles. Although they is some evidence which suggests these ideas are exaggerated. Marshall’s survey into how people view themselves showed people still see social class as a source of identity. The traditional working class was a group of people that was developed after the industrialisation when they were need for large amounts of manual workers. This group formed a strong sense on culture and identity. These were strong moral values, having men as the breadwinner and women as housewives and believing getting a job is more important than having an education. The traditional working class also saw the labour party as the party for the working class as it represented their interests, as pointed out in item B. Although now many people in the working class vote for different parties as they don’t all agree on what is important now in society, supporting the idea that traditional class identities are no longer important. Now also the manufacturing business as changed a lot, this means now they aren’t the same jobs available as they would have been before as they have been replaced with things such as machines that can do a faster and cheaper job. Therefore the working class has had to change the sort of jobs they do over time which may be a reason for the change in characteristics, and therefore making the traditional class identities now no longer important. Diamond and Giddens agree with this as they argue that the working class is no longer important because of the change in the economy that as lead to the decline of manual labour jobs, and that the working class isn’t now the only class which experiences economic and social eprivation. The new working class is now seen to have little loyalty to others within the same class, more emphasis on customer goods, high levels of home ownership, and women likely to be employed. There is also now a larger section of the working class, this may be down to some working class jobs now becoming more skilful therefore getting higher pay, which others become less skilful and get lower pay, meaning people in the same class may identify themselves every differently. However there are sociologists that believe traditional class identities are still very important, for example Marxists. They believe social class is still hugely influential in shaping our identities. They also believe social class is identified by your income, and that leisure wouldn’t define your identity as you would need the disposable income to afford it. The British Attitudes Survey supported this idea, because in 2007 it found still 94% of people still identified themselves with a social class, whereas only 6% didn’t. Overall the importance of traditional class identities are seen every differently by different people. Views which agree and disagree to the importance of traditional class identities still being important have both positives and negatives so it’s hard to just believe one view point is the truth and the other doesn’t matter. Therefore I believe both viewpoints have sufficient evidence and that traditional class identities are still important to an extent, however now there is also other factors that can make up our identity other than just our social class. Assess the View That Traditional Class Identities These groups are the working class, middle class and upper class. However now some believe there isn’t this social class division within society and that everyone is equal. People that would agree traditional class identities are no longer important are postmodernists. These have the view that class no longer really matters in modern Britain and that now people no longer identify themselves according to their class background. Clarke and Saunders (1991) would agree with the view of postmodernists. They suggest that classes have become fragmented into many different groups and now they have been replaced with other influences such as gender and lifestyles. Although they is some evidence which suggests these ideas are exaggerated. Marshall’s survey into how people view themselves showed people still see social class as a source of identity. The traditional working class was a group of people that was developed after the industrialisation when they were need for large amounts of manual workers. This group formed a strong sense on culture and identity. These were strong moral values, having men as the breadwinner and women as housewives and believing getting a job is more important than having an education. The traditional working class also saw the labour party as the party for the working class as it represented their interests, as pointed out in item B. Although now many people in the working class vote for different parties as they don’t all agree on what is important now in society, supporting the idea that traditional class identities are no longer important. Now also the manufacturing business as changed a lot, this means now they aren’t the same jobs available as they would have been before as they have been replaced with things such as machines that can do a faster and cheaper job. Therefore the working class has had to change the sort of jobs they do over time which may be a reason for the change in characteristics, and therefore making the traditional class identities now no longer important. Diamond and Giddens agree with this as they argue that the working class is no longer important because of the change in the economy that as lead to the decline of manual labour jobs, and that the working class isn’t now the only class which experiences economic and social eprivation. The new working class is now seen to have little loyalty to others within the same class, more emphasis on customer goods, high levels of home ownership, and women likely to be employed. There is also now a larger section of the working class, this may be down to some working class jobs now becoming more skilful therefore getting higher pay, which others become less skilful and get lower pay, meaning people in the same class may identify themselves every differently. However there are sociologists that believe traditional class identities are still very important, for example Marxists. They believe social class is still hugely influential in shaping our identities. They also believe social class is identified by your income, and that leisure wouldn’t define your identity as you would need the disposable income to afford it. The British Attitudes Survey supported this idea, because in 2007 it found still 94% of people still identified themselves with a social class, whereas only 6% didn’t. Overall the importance of traditional class identities are seen every differently by different people. Views which agree and disagree to the importance of traditional class identities still being important have both positives and negatives so it’s hard to just believe one view point is the truth and the other doesn’t matter. Therefore I believe both viewpoints have sufficient evidence and that traditional class identities are still important to an extent, however now there is also other factors that can make up our identity other than just our social class.

Knowledge Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words - 1

Knowledge Management - Essay Example For example, as a recorded tradition in different Abrahamic religions, it is said that when one of the sons of Adam killed the other, he learnt from the nature that what to do with the dead body. Moving further, when mankind decided to search for the ways to feed themselves, other than hunting, it was actually their never satiating desire for knowledge that helped them in learning new ways. Thus we can say that one of the important factor of the advancement and continuous evolution of the human civilization is the continuous enhancement of knowledge. However, it must be noted that the purpose to acquire knowledge has been drastically changed. Now, besides the purpose stated earlier, the knowledge acquisition is also aimed for the self-growth and intellectual development. However, by the passage of time, as the ways to store information or knowledge improved, the volume of knowledge started to grow exponentially. With this change in the arena of the knowledge, the focus shifted from merely its acquisition to its management as well as implementation. This shift in focus was not restricted to any one discipline, rather this wave of change was across the board, thus affecting al the discipline. However, the intensity varied from field to field. Among these, the business arena experienced the remarkable influence of this concept. To move on to knowledge management, we must be primarily have an idea of diver... WHAT IS KNOWLEDGE There is no single agreed definition of the term 'knowledge'. This is probably not out of ignorance to the subject, rather an exhibition of the diversity in the ways people approach knowledge, create, store and disseminate it. Dome people have defined it philosophically, some have defined it religiously, while some define it in the context of their own readings and work experience. According to John Locke (1689), knowledge has been defined in his book BOOK IV. Of Knowledge and Probability. "An Essay: Concerning Human Understanding" in following words: Knowledge is the perception of the agreement or disagreement of two ideas Another tendency of defining knowledge is to correlate it with the experience: "a) the condition of knowing something with familiarity gained through experience or association b) the condition of being aware of something c) the condition of apprehending truth or fact d) the condition of having information or of being learned" (tangents.home.att.net/data/rlgdef.htm) The religious orientation brings another understanding towards 'knowledge'. According to them, knowledge is: "is an ability to remember Scripture or have it supernatural quickened, or to know a fact or truth about a person or situation revealed directly by the Holy Spirit--sometimes termed a word of knowledge. [Bible Study on Knowledge.]" (www.acts17-11.com/dictionary_gifts.html) Some other authors have defined it in their own way: knowledge is what I know information is what we know (Foskett) A dictionary definition is a as follow: Acquaintance with facts, truths, or principles, as from study or investigation. Source: The Random House Dictionary of the English Language It was important to cite as much as possible different perspectives on knowledge, so

Advantages and Disadvantages of a Monopoly Term Paper

Advantages and Disadvantages of a Monopoly - Term Paper Example The characteristics of a monopoly include the presence of one seller and many buyers in the market, resulting in the seller having total market power on quantity and price. In a monopoly market structure, there are no close substitutes for the good or service supplied by the monopoly resulting in consumers having to purchase at the set price by the monopoly, and lack of perfect information for the consumers (Tragakes, 2011). The other characteristic of a monopoly is presence of high entry barriers caused by factors including high capital requirement, natural causes, and ownership of production resources by the firm. Microsoft ownership of the windows operating system brand is an example when monopoly results from the ownership of a scarce resource in the economy. The other reasons for the high entry barriers in a monopoly include Government Issue of one license and ownership of patent rights for production. The other characteristics in a monopoly market face inelastic price elasticit y of demand owing to lack of substitutes and consumers have to purchase at prices set by the monopoly allowing for abnormal profits (Tragakes, 2011). Monopoly, therefore, produces low quantity and sells at a high price. Examples of monopoly include Feet-First Pharmaceutical and power supply firm in a country where there is only one operating license provided by the government. Royal Mail Group was until 2006, a monopoly for the presence of only one operating license but was opened for competition to ensure efficiency in service delivery (Samuelson & Stephen, 2012). Monopolies have certain advantages in the economy owing to the characteristics of the market they operate. The advantages include stability of the monopoly in terms of changes in economic terms such as a recession. A monopoly consists of one large firm that supplies a product to the entire market owing to high resource

Electoral Processes of Thailand and Great Britain Essay Example for Free

Electoral Processes of Thailand and Great Britain Essay Electoral Process of Kingdom of Thailand and Kingdom of Great Britain The election is a formal decision making process by which a population chooses an individual to hold office. Elections may fill offices in the legislative, sometimes in the executive and judiciary, and for regional and local government. The universal use of election as a tool for selecting representatives in modern democracies is in contrast with the practice in the democratic archetype. Kingdom of Great Britain conducts such election since 17th century. On the otherhand, the Kingdom of Thailand have their first general election on 1993which is called to be indirect because of large number of population. Since both Kingdom of Great Britain and Kingdom of Thailand have constitutional monarchy as form of their government, these two kingdoms have some basic similarities in decision making process-election. The Kingdom of Thailand used the multi member system in constituencies for the election of senate and combination of plurality and proportional system for the election of HoR. On the other hand, Kingdom of Great Britain used the system commonly called â€Å"First Past The Post System† of election to the West Minster Parliament, taking into account four requirements, namely broad proportionality; the need for stable government; an extension of voter choice; and the maintenance of a link between MP’s and geographical constituencies. These two kingdom’s aims primarily to eliminate problems in elections such as vote buying, cheating, and the partisan conduct of government officers. This paper aims to analyse the significance of the election systems used in conducting such elections in determining of how many representative/s in each province or division; how many votes a candidate or political party accumulates or how much it is ahead of other candidate/party to hold office; and how do it avoid election problems such as party switching. For more understanding, questions will be answered such as, who can vote? Who can run as candidate for a public office? Keywords: Election, Public Office, Legislative, Executive, Judiciary, Democratic, Kingdom of Great Britain, Kingdom of Thailand, HoR, Senate, Multi-Member System, Plurality and proportional System, First-Post-The-Past System, Party Switching.

George Orwell’s 1984 - Mindless People :: 1984 Essays

Occupations are important in order to be successful in life. One needs a source of income and a way to provide for one’s families. Some people work at home, some people have a schedule when one leaves at a certain time each day and return home at the same time each night. One gets comfortable in one’s work but does one take time to ask oneself why one is doing it? If an occupation does not help society or have any real purpose then is it really a useful occupation or is it just a bunch of mindless activity? Professional athletes make an insurmountable amount of money but what is the point of professional sports? Professional sports do not help make the world a better place nor does it have a purpose other than entertainment for the sports junkies on this earth. What is the purpose of movie makers and artists? How do they make the world a better place? In some ways they make a world a worse place because people get so caught up in entertainment that they forget about th e rest of the world and the ones who suffer and the corrupt governments and the deadly diseases. Why cant jobs be created to help in those areas? Instead of paying people for doing mindless jobs, one should be paying others to actually work to make this world a better place with a better economy and without suffering people. In George Orwell’s novel 1984 it offers a great view of mindless occupations. Winston, the main character talks about how boring his work is in the Ministry of Plenty. He explains how his work is to change the words and meaning in newspapers, books, letters and any other text related materials in order to make the government and the society the best that it can be. Then once he follows his orders and completely changes history with his speakwrite, he takes the original information and dumps it down a memory hole which destroys it (Orwell 37). Everything that Winston must write has to take the form of the Newspeak language which is the English language modified, and made simpler by combining words together. For example, instead of having words such as ‘excellent’ or ‘splendid’ one would use the word plusgood or doubleplusgood if you wanted something even stronger (Orwell 51). Another example is Winston’s workplace.

Patagonia Case Study

Ana Martinez Valls 22/10/2012 PATAGONIA 1) Evaluate Patagonia’s business model. How important to Patagonia’s business model is its environmental position? Business models generally have as a primary objective to earn money, however, Patagonia’s is primarily oriented towards â€Å"doing things right†. That is why Patagonia’s founder Yves Chouinard considers the company an opportunity to â€Å"challenge the conventional wisdom and present a new style of responsible business†.It’s business model differs substantially from the traditional business’ one. PATAGONIA’S BUSINESS MODEL * Target customer: Patagonia builds products for its â€Å"core users†, those who lead the â€Å"dirtbag† lifestyle (someone who wanders for temp jobs and long summers†, someone who is passioned about climbing, surfing.. etc) * Product: High quality & useful products, for different occasions that are aimed to â€Å"last foreverà ¢â‚¬ : Four main product categories: Sportswear (47%), Technical outwear (30%) Technical Knits(12%), Hard Goods (6%). Mission- Core service:  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Build the best product, cause no unnecessary harm and use business to inspire and implement solutions to the environmental crisis†. Value delivered: Manufacture of high quality outdoor and adventure sport clothing -Quality: Best clothes, own quality Lab (patents and technique used by other big corpportaions) -Environmentally impact (organic materials, recyclable products, environmental campaigns) -Innovative products that can â€Å"last forever† (more intelligent consumption) -Service to he customer (repair, replace) Acquire and keep customers: during a recession as it is the case nowadays, in a competitive market if two firm s have the same product at a similar price and one of them has a more responsible business, customers are going to choose the responsible business’ product * Differentiation: Organic mate rials that decrease harm to the environment. Products that last forever. Indeed you don’t have to buy new products you can repair them ! Products tested (proved by professionals) and developed in Patagonia’s lab. Revenue generation: Margin earned from selling through its four channels: wholesale(44%), retail (33%), catalog and internet (23%). As a percentage of sales, the gross margin ranges form 50 to 55%. In their new products they focus on innovation, environmental impact and quality what enabled them to â€Å" charge prices roughly 20% higher than those of other outdoor apparel and 505 higher than mass market brands for comparable products†. * Cost structure: one third of the cost comes from manufacturing and two thirds form raw materials.Higher costs due to labor costs in North America which are â€Å" estimated to be anywhere from four to ten times those elsewhere† but also by the use of eco friendly materials such as organic cotton which was betwee n 50% and 100% more expensive than normal cotton. * Profit margin: $26 963 000 ($332 862 in net sales) in 2010 2) How fast can Patagonia grow? How fast should it grow? Patagonia could grow faster, from a financial perspective but if it did it so it would not be â€Å"The Coolest Company on the Planet† (Fortune cover  story, Casey 2007).Indeed Patagonia endeavors a sustainable growth and it prioritizes a slow growth that enable the corporation to be committed to its mission and values. Patagonia’s growth path is closely related to the values that have being shaping the company since 1957 when Chouinard founded it. Indeed, Chouinard is a reluctant entrepreneur and his primary objective in business is not to earn money but he states that â€Å"the reason why [he is] in business is to protect what he likes†. An unsustainable growth goes against his values. Patagonia has found unambiguous ways to couple their products’ function and the brands environmental v alues.Their business model raises major sums for environmental causes and their technological innovation reduces the environmental impact of their products- and that is what it is important for Patagonia. A perfect example of the sustainable growth Patagonia wants to pursue is their willingness to use organic cotton. The help provided to other corporation in order to help to establish a whole new  organic? cotton industry is also a landmark of how they are committed to a sustainable development of the manufacturing industry.Indeed, Patagonia is a reference for other business in its path to reduce contamination and some big corporations such as Nike have imitated -in a certain degree -this new organic cotton initiative. Patagonia has a responsibility towards society and the future reduction of pollution and feels that its mission is â€Å"to share broad sustainable practices†. Another initiative that in theory slows Patagonia financial growth is its participation in the â₠¬Å"1% For The Planet† program- â€Å"an alliance of over 1200 business that donate a self imposed environmental tax of 1% of revenues to environmental organizations worldwide.Also, some of Patagonia’s practices such their Employee Internship Program- through which employees can leave their jobs at Patagonia for up to two months to work full-time for the environmental group of their choice- could also slow their financial growth but increase their positive impact in society In a nut shell, Patagonia is not only focused in economic and financial growth but more on â€Å"its path of breaking new ground on reducing environmental harm†. Patagonia wants to be part of the solution to this economic crisis, and not part of the problem.Even if it could grow faster in financial terms, there is no doubt that Patagonia is growing exponentially in other parameters such as in its position as a beneficial actor in society. 3) Would Patagonia’s business model differ if it were a publicly held company? If Patagonia was a Publicly held company it should in theory pursue other objectives and values that the ones it has currently since it should give priority to shareholder’s value. At a first glance we may think that a faster growth pace will be the solution.In fact, in the case it is suggested â€Å" the fact that Patagonia was private was a major reason that it could pursue environmental sustainability†. On the one hand, shareholders care about dividends and the value of their stocks and â€Å"Patagonia’s sustainable agenda† is said to be â€Å"at the expense of its growth†. On the other hand, Patagonia’s environmental committeemen â€Å"g[ives] the company its competitive advantage† and helps the company to pursue a sustainable growth.Maybe it is true that in the short term to have as the main goal Maximizing shareholder wealth by boosting growth could be a good solution. Nevertheless, in the long ter m it may be unsustainable. In a long term perspective achieving the multi-ends of the firm in accordance with the common good of the society seems to be the good solution-and more now in times in of a global economic crisis where competition is huge and customers have a high bargaining power.Customers will appreciate that the company is a member of the society, a member that balances short term and long term value and seeks for the common good. Patagonia does so by being environmentally committed and by providing services for other companies by sharing with them their innovative sustainable practices and product innovations. It is interesting to point out that Patagonia has being increasing its profits each year even if they were environmental friendly.They have always bear in mind that â€Å"if [they] wish to lead corporate America by example, [they] have to be profitable†. This kind of rationale will be difficult to implement in a publicly held business where the stockholde rs may be unsatisfied with the company’s objectives. However in the medium or in the long term stockholders will be happy to earn stock from one of the â€Å"100 Best Companies† that is probably carrying on growing.Patagonia has achieved an exceptional degree of integration between Corporate Social Responsibility values and commercial activity. Its business strategy is extraordinary and instructive. Patagonia WTP * High products * Durable Credible environmental Policy * Moral Wellbeing * Innovation * Multi use Organic cotton: reduce models because they did not found as many providers as they needed Patagonia’s business model : Invest in research and development: quality , innovation, high price, profit Invest in environment: Reduce harm, En4139ry

The silk Road recording the journey

The Silk Road was a very interesting time in life time history. The silk Road was the world's first superhighway not literally a single road it consisted of a good network of trade routes connecting China with Central Asia and lands beyond all the way to Rome. Goods were usually transported by larch Caravana it's made up of guides soldiers religious Pilgrims merchants and hundreds of fright bearing camels. The silk Road florist for more than 3000 years and had a major influence on the cultures of Asia Europe and Africa is Vinny Q ask you to become a traveler on the silk Road and to record your experiences at different points on your journey.In this mini to you will examine several documents and then write five journal entries in the voice of a fictionists person traveling the silk Road first choose the type of traveler you wish to be from the collection of district just descriptions on the following page give your traveler a name from the list below and fill out the profile of this p erson using the biological information and your historical imagination.Good Genadijs spread across to soak road for sentries this process of sharing is calling cultural diffusion by historians below are a few examples of goods and ideas that move by way of the silk Road's number one from China silk iron bronze server and mix orange trees paper gunpowder from Central Asia for Gano horses from Africa Ivory and rhinoceros horn from India spices and Buddhism from Europe music and glassware for travelers heading west the OC this town of done Wong was a place to rest and resupply before braving the Western Cody and the Telemac and deserts soon after the fall of hand dynasty.Buddhism monks Buddhist monks begin to dig caves just 10 miles outside of dung cock in many of the caves they built Buddhist shrines over the centuries these caves also became storage vaults for many items brought to Duntonge by Cellpro travelers in ancient times the Telemac and desert was sometimes referred to as the Cody today as then the temperature in the desert reaches over 100Â °F and rainfall and minimal

What i have lived for Essay Example

What i have lived for Essay Example What i have lived for Essay What i have lived for Essay Over the course of my life, three passions that have driven my life: the need for adrenaline, the commitment of family love, and the endless love for cars. Though simple and uninteresting to ones mind, these overwhelming passions have lead my life of dullness and bitterness to a life of sweetness and Joy. Whats so life changing of these passions? Whether its the urge to winning a race or parachuting off a plane miles up, that heart pumping, adrenaline, feeling I get is what I would describe fun as. That slow action time zone I receive in the midst of battling a position for a race is the feeling that cannot be explained, but for one to have experienced it to know. That time zone where everything is slowed, is where I have the chance to forget all the stress built up, and to Just enjoy the ecstasy feeling of the adrenaline. This ecstasy feeling is so great that one could sacrifice a stressful moment of their life Just to sit down and enjoy the beautiful scenery around them. Then all of a sudden, the feeling would Just seem to fade away and the life I once had comes back. Though knowing the fact that this adrenaline feeling could be experienced again, the depression I have decreases just a bit, while I look forward to the next time will experience it again. While the want for adrenaline, comes with the want to return a favor to my family. Thinking of the pain my parents have suffered to give me the life I never had, gives me pains as I watch them come home tired and hungry every day since I could remember. Family first is what I go by, so I would take every available chance there is to be able to return the favor. Parents are not Just the people who wash your loathes and cook you dinner, they are the people who have striver to see you be happy. Though I could tell them I love them every day, nothing more than physically showing them proves more. The day I read my first car book at the age of 5 was the day that marked the beginning of my love for cars. The rumbling roars of the cars circling the track is like music to my ears. Spending time admiring the beauty of each car would be my second definition of fun. But the real fun lies behind a leather gripped steering wheel of an Italian supercargo. The adrenaline that rushes through your brain makes o feel like you never want to get out of the car, forgetting the fact that you once had a life. Speeding through the hollow tunnels leaving a trail of roars and taking the turns with such speed is what each young car fanatic would have dreamed of before sleeping. Its a shame that Im still in the introduction years of my life, unable to experience that life at the moment, but its good to know that with effort I can achieve it. Blood -rushing adrenaline, commitment to the family, and endless love for cars are the passions that have driven my life of dullness and bitterness to a life of sweetness and Joy.

Hotel accounting system Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Hotel accounting system - Case Study Example The lodging industry was apparently one of the first industries to enlarge â€Å"definitive standards to provide precise regulation to accountants and operators. The standards evolved since consistency of layout and arrangements were, and are, still not strained under U.S. Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP)." Those standards were and are controlled in the Uniform System of Accounts for the Lodging Industry (USALI), which is published by the American Hotel and Motel Association. The USALI itself provides for up to 30 departmental statements, which include, in addition to those previously mentioned: telecommunications, garage and parking, golf shop, golf pro shop, guest laundry, health center, swimming pool, tennis, tennis pro shop, other operated departments, rentals and other income, human resources, information services, security, franchise fees, management fees, rent, property taxes and insurance, interest expense, depreciation and amortization, income taxes, house la undry, salaries and wages and payroll taxes and employee benefits. (Collins, M. & Parsa, H. 2006)The principal differences between hotel's transactions and internal control and those of additional businesses are found in the revenue cycle. Room revenue is the mainly significant source of income to hotel. The front desk is the center of the hotel's operation and the place where the guest ledger, which abridges and accrues all charges to guests using the hotel facilities, is maintained. Several of the functions executed by front desk employees are registering guests, recording room revenue, recording food and beverage and other guest charges, checking out guests, and settling guests' bills. Ceria Holiday Ceria Holiday, which is positioned in tourist area in North America, operates guesthouses. The fee charged to Ceria's guests includes both accommodation and all meals. The management of Ceria applies strict financial control of its activities in consideration of the competitiveness of the industry and the seasonal nature of the business. In this meticulous case, the area that needs constant monitoring on the costs is the restaurant. The manager of the restaurant is given an annual budget at the beginning of each year. Each month he/she receives performance statement with the following postulations: The budget has been calculated on the basis of 30-day calendar month with the costs of rent and depreciation being an apportionment of the fixed annual charge. The budgeted catering wages presume that: There is one member of the catering staff for every 40 guests staying at the complex; The daily cost of member of the catering staff is RM30 All other budgeted costs are variable costs based on the number of guest days. While services at the Ceria Hotel are provided by the property, revenues are recorded and charged to the barter accountability. On the other hand, the expense is offset against the barter asset account when the service is acknowledged. For peripheral reporting purposes, USAL recommends that the asset and legal responsibility accounts be netted and reflected as contemporary asset or accountability. This will result in revenues and expenses connected with the barter transaction being reported in different periods. Ratio analysis, in common, comprises the same types of ratios used in approximately any industry. Nevertheless, there are few industry specialized ratios peculiar to hotels and/or restaurants of which one ought to be aware. Average Room Rate = Rooms Revenue divided by Paid Rooms Occupied. Average Food Check = Total Food Revenue divided by Number of Covers. Covers refer to guests served in the food operation during the interlude.(Collins, M. & Parsa, H. 2006) current vital addition is "RevPar", which stands for Revenue per Available Room. It is calculated as moreover: Rooms Revenue divided by Rooms Available for Sale, or as Rooms Revenue div

Writting to Evaluate Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Writting to Evaluate - Essay Example Buying a Blackberry phone is a bit different from just getting a regular phone that lacks the features present in this phone. The phone itself is described as the largest gorgeous looking smartphone on the planet. While holding it in one hand, you will surely understand why it bears the description. Most fascinating is when you scroll and explore the application, that is, when you will appreciate the reality that this phone is unquestionably magnificent. Nowadays, every phone company is working tremendously hard to establish a myriad of features in their phones to attract customers. The companies are forced to incur massive investments to brand their products. Owing a camera feature is almost standard for any phone but what brings the difference is the image resolution. Blackberry 9530 is above three megapixels. Needless to say, the blackberry phone has a lot more features which will be shared to you. First is an integrated GPS technique that tends to make use of Blackberry maps. The media player file has the capacity to play 3 formats including MP3, AAC+ and WMA. The video player enables you to view MPEG4 or WMV format. The three formats above are the most liked by telephone users. The camera makes it possible for you to watch videos as well as recording them since it delivers a resolution of much more than 3 megapixels and contains an automatic concentrate feature. Blackberry 9530 makes use of touch screen based technologies. You can edit documents and supply all the standard functions of text messaging using the editor. It also allows listening to music using the Wi-Fi web access through integration of Bluetooth technology. Amazing is the fact that Blackberry 9530 was the first to introduce the touch screen technology. Another feature that lacks in other phones is the potential use of both single and multi-touch to interface with different applications. A prominent feature possessed by this

Evaluation of a Business Code of Ethics Research Paper - 1

Evaluation of a Business Code of Ethics - Research Paper Example So, perfect work ethics mainly initiated and managed by the leaders and management will only ensure smooth functioning for the organization and elevate its image. A foolproof and effective ethical program should be given top most priority and should be incorporated in every aspect of organizational functioning, without exception. So, this article will evaluate the ethical program in the one of the largest corporations of the world, Shell Oil Company In 1833, Marcus Samuel, a London Shopkeeper, decided to introduce oriental shells as fashion in interior design. Till 1886, the demand for oil was restricted to lighting and lubricants. With the invention of internal combustion engine and the first automobiles, the demand for gasoline arrived. By then the business was taken over by Marcus Samuel Junior and Sam Samuel. In the 1880’s, oil was being exported from Russia to other countries from the ports at Black Sea. Oil was transported in barrels and it consumed a lot of space in the hold of the ship. The Samuel brothers commissioned a fleet of bulk oil tankers for transporting oil. The Samuel brothers achieved a revolution in oil transporting with the maiden voyage of the first tanker the â€Å"Murex† through the Suez Canal in 1892. The brothers initially called their company the Tank Syndicate but later renamed it to Shell Transport and Trading Company in 1897. Petroleum was also being produced in the East Indies, whic h was a Dutch colony, by the Royal Dutch Petroleum Company. With stiff competition from Standard Oil, the two companies joined together to form Asiatic petroleum Company in 1903. The full merger of the two companies into Royal Dutch Shell Group came in 1907. Today, Shell is a global group of energy and petrochemical companies. As per Forbes report (2009), in the year 2009, the Royal Dutch Shell was ranked 2nd largest company in the world, with assets worth US $ 278.44

Ethics of social media Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Ethics of social media - Essay Example However, such responses from the veterans are subjected to continue rejections and challenges with time as the technology of the social networking is changing and facing new horizons. The main aspect of the use of this technology can be seen by the transformation of the communication process, but the social bonding is virtually ethical or not needs a constant reply. The bonding is in terms of friends, parents’ children bonding, and employer link to employee, coworker to other coworker, student and teacher, neighbors, buyer and sellers, doctor connections with patients and many others. The ethical conclusions on such networking technologies are not based on personal grounds. The interacting web service is complex in nature with connection to the online and offline world, the different motives of the developers and corporations comes out to be disputable and therefore, it is in the basic need of some strict philosophical and ethical balances for the future years of the networkin g world. Definition and history of social networking services: The phrase â€Å"social networking† has diverse meaning and concepts with no clear definition. As humans on earth are in constant reach of social networking by one way or the other since the time of the birth (Boyd 16). History has showed that humans developed several ways to came in contact with one another and in social interaction by many means and ways, thus, making the particular institutions and affiliated places like private or public clubs, lodge and church. Moreover, humans developed and invented tools for communication like telegram, telephone, postal services and others. So, when philosophers maintain the ethical balance for the social networking communication, they are of the means that what would be the ethical influence of the ambiguous social networking service, which is formed from the web 2.0 software standards. The same was evolved first in the beginning of the twenty first century. Before the ap pearance of web 2.0 standards, the internet based social networking was there for the last many years through computer operations. The first official networking was done through computer in 1970 in the U.S by the military ARPANET and after that it began to expand in order to provide facility to many newsgroups based on the internet use, mailing electronically, bulletin board system, multi user dungeons and other rooms dedicated for the chat purpose that were based on topics and social identities. The initial form of social networking communication evolves organically for the purpose of discovering medium for institutional, academic and commercial ranges. Therefore, web 2.0 standard were introduced in order to provide the users with collective, user formatted and sharing of internet based content and during this, the major purpose of the web 2.0 developers was commercialized and institutional based. They knew the potential of the internet based subsystem and worked to improved it fur ther. Particularly, the web 2.0 gave the platform to the users to make their online and offline presence- a latest practice that moved the internet communication from its general form that was based on anonymous discussions without concealing the true identities. The latest standard of interaction through internet was initiated by orkut, MySpace, LinkedIn, Friendster, habbo, bebo and facebook by revealing true identities. The next standard was based on sharing of intern

Effects of Material on Braking Abilities

Effects of Material on Braking Abilities Abstract: The most important utility in our lives as of today is automobiles, there is a lot of research and development is going in every section of the automobile field to give the safest possible vehicle to the world. One such is Brakes section; this is very important part in every vehicle, though we have most accurate and efficient brakes now-a-days, but they fail at the extreme conditions of heat , vibrations , high frequencies etc., this project is mainly concentrated on the aspects which are causing adverse affect to fail and create unusual   disturbances in the brakes. One such is brake squeal, an unwanted sound which is caused due to the vibration of the brake pads against the disc generating the high pitch noise. There are few other problems which leads into the high frequency problems, vibrations, tear in the brake disc etc. Here in this project a detailed study of disc brake is taken into account by considering with two different materials cast iron and aluminium alloy. The performance of brake is studies using normal stress analysis, vibration analysis and thermal analysis. The main problem of squeal can be due to the combination of vibration in brake set-up from callipers to the brake discs. And can also due to the uneven surfaces of the brake disc which causes due to the improper heat dissipation in the brake disc, all this problems are kept into consideration and this analysis are carried out for brake disc with two different materials as mentioned. A simple change in the design of brake disc has also been done for the maximum heat dissipation and this design also studied in this extreme conditions. And these two type brake disc are compared in all its possibly calculated attributes and the best one is concluded. Introduction: An automobile is a creation of history when they started and now it has become a crucial part of the world. Automobile is a wheeled motor vehicle used for transporting passengers, good etc. There has been a lot of improvement in the automotive field in all ways from the past few decades. The main aim of the automotive department is to provide safest vehicle from its design to the material used for each component. Every single thing is decided on basis of the effect of it on the human lives. The vehicles we use are very efficient when compared with older generation vehicles, the safety increases with the development and technology. But there are few problems which are yet to be solved. One such is about brakes, as we know BRAKES are the most important part in the every moving body, we have seen very drastic improvement in the methods of braking system. In olden days the brakes were handled by hand and now we have disc brakes and hydraulic brakes.   But the whole concept of brakes is working on same principle of kinetic energy is converted into heat energy. We find brakes very commonly used in cars, bikes, aeroplanes, automated machines etc. Brake is a device which decelerates the vehicle or machine by converting its kinetic energy into other form of energy, which will bring the vehicle down to the rest. We have disc brakes now which require very less amount of effort and time to stop the vehicle due to its accuracy and sensitivity; this are widely used in vehicles now-a-days. The drum brakes were used for very long time and we use even now, these were also very efficient brakes but due to the very common issues of changing the brake pads very often due to the short hand braking or improper usage, this has been replaced by disc or hydraulic in few machines. But we have found very common issues in disc brakes due to the brake rotor and brake pads. Due to the high friction while short braking we get unwanted noise brake squeal, though it doesnt have much effect on the performance of the vehicle, but it may fail the brake due to the tear o f brake disc or brake pads. A detailed study of each problem will be studied in further report taking disc brake system. History of Brakes: Invention of brake has started with the automated machines; brakes came into light mainly when the motorised wheeled vehicles came into existence. Brakes were not only used in the vehicles, these are used in other machines as brake lever to stop the motion rotor and so on. It has been an essential part of the moving systems. Brakes have developed a lot from first generation vehicles to present time. Early braking systems used steel rimmed wheels to stop the vehicle, which consists of curved wooden block designed to bear against the steel tire when operated by a single leverage system from the driver seat. But the brake shoe used was normal way of braking either in the horse drawn vehicle or steam locomotive. In 1895 Michelin Brothers move a step ahead to replace the steel rimmed wheels with the pneumatic rubber tire to come out with a new braking system as the brake shoes were no longer satisfactory.   A new method of braking system was required in those times as two early devices attempted to apply the friction force to the axle or to drum on axle or transmission shaft were not efficient as wanted. One method was use of wooden block inside a flexible contracting metal band which when pressed together would tighten the drum causing friction between the drum, which is connected to the wooden block and w heel, then the vehicle gets slow down. The other method was inner wheel or brake drum which will add an external contracting band to bear against the drum to bring the vehicle to rest. In 1899 Daimler started cable operated braking system; a cable was wound around a drum and attached to the chassis, so that when the cable is tightened when car was moving forward, the rotation of drum will increase the tightness and grip of cable, so that it will reduce the amount of force required to pull the cable-lever on the pedal to stop the moving vehicle. This brake system worked well but still the braking efficiency was less, the added efficiency called servo assistance is still an important factor in drum brakes even today. The external brake was vulnerable to the atmospheric conditions like weathering and to un-even roads which caused a rapid loss of efficiency and wear of the brake shoe lining and on few times automatic brake use to happen due to the drum expansion. To overcome all these problems an internal shoe brake was developed were the expanding the brake shoes were placed the inside the brake drum, mainly to protect from the dust and weather. Originally early brakes were operated by mechanically, i.e. the transformation by mechanical system was used to expand the brake shoes against drum by the drivers effort applied on the brake pedal. It works by pressing the brake pedal, which make cam to rotate by a lever connected to pedal, which forces the shoes to come on contact with the brake drum. And springs attached to both of the brake shoes to retain the original position when brakes are released. As the early brakes use to operate on lever supported cables and linkage system of fixed rods, equalising the same amount of brake pressure on the wheels has presented many problems , which were solved when hydraulic system was introduced, which used fluid to transfer the force applied to the brake pedal. In hydraulic braking system the set-up of cylinders and pipe lines forms a closed system which is filled with fluid. The pressure generated in master cylinder will transmit equal force to the each wheel cylinder and then equal pressure is applied to all brake shoes. This hydraulic system is used with the disc brake as well. Disc brake is more efficient braking system which was used mostly sports car when introduced but now it has been a very common system in passenger vehicles. It has a disc and a calliper is attached to it which can be operated mechanically, hydraulically, pneumatically, electromagnetically. Types of brakes: The brakes are broadly explained as using friction, pumping or electromagnetism. But one brake system can also use more than one principle. As the project is based on the disc brake we will look forward only to discuss about the frictional brake. Frictional brakes: These types of brakes are mostly rotating devices with a stationary pad attached with a rotating surface. These types of brakes are widely used even now in modern automotive braking system. Basically this are developed from band brakes to drum brakes then to the disc brakes. Band brakes: A simple type of brake, works on a principle that a band is wrapped round the rotating drum. When a force is applied on the lever, the restraining torque is found from the difference in tension between the two ends of the belt. The principle of operation of the band brake is same as for belt drives. This is external type braking system, as we see in picture the brake shoe are mounted on the drum. Ref: http://school.mech.uwa.edu.au/~dwright/DANotes/brakes/intro/intro.html Drum shoe brakes: This type of brake usually mean the brake shoe is mounted to press the inside surface of the drum. Two brake shoes are connected with a calliper set-up; it has lining on it which will create a frictional force when pressed towards the moving surface of the vehicle. These types of drum brakes are still used in modern cars due to the some cost and engineering benefits. These are applied to the rear wheels of today cars. Ref: http://school.mech.uwa.edu.au/~dwright/DANotes/brakes/intro/intro.html Disc Brake: these most widely used brake of these days, A disc is mounted on the wheel or axle and brake pads are placed within the jaws of the calliper, this is give the necessary friction when it will grip on the brake disc. Ref: http://static.howstuffworks.com/gif/disc-brake3.jpg Characteristics of brakes: Brakes are described on basis of several characteristics as Peak force: The maximum force obtained to decelerate the vehicle is called peak force. Few times this can be more than the traction limit of tires, then the wheel gets skid Continuous Power dissipation: As we know that the brakes get hot in use and get fail when the temperature gets too high, the maximum amount of power that dissipates through the brake without failure is the continuous power dissipation. Fade: Due to the over heat of the brakes the surface of the brake pads or disc get fade which will cause decrease in the effectiveness of brakes. Few times even cooling will have big effect on to fade. Power: when a very less force leads to the braking force, which is higher than the other brakes in similar class then its stated as powerful brake, which is due to the sensitivity of the brake system. Durability: Friction brakes have the lining which has wear surfaces, these to be renewed periodically.   Like brake shoes, pads or brake disc. Even if wear surface due to brake shoe generates high peak force this will lead to wear quickly. Weight: In some circumstances brakes are often mounted on wheels, this can disturb the traction significantly. Here weight means brake itself or an additional support structure Noise: generally brakes create some minor noise when applied, but sometimes create a high pitch noise called squeal or grinding noise. Principles of braking system: Brakes work on simple principle to slow down the moving vehicle by applying an external force, it may use more than one component; directly or indirectly several components effect on the momentum of the moving vehicle. Various types of process are used for braking effect. Frictional brakes are most commonly used these days, these works on the simple mechanism of changing the kinetic energy into the heat energy, which is done by only factor friction. Friction is created when a stationary brake pad grips on the moving brake disc with a force applied. This type of braking system is also used in the disc brakes; the stationary brake pads rub on the disc rotor which moves relatively in its own axis. Basic laws of braking system: Braking system can be explained by two simple Newton laws; which will explain the whole concept of the braking system As we know that the Newtons second law The net force on an object is equal to the its mass times its acceleration and points in the direction of the acceleration F = m* a The law is used to find out the net force required by brake pads to bring the moving vehicle to rest, tough there are many other factors to be considered for calculation of brake force which will be discussed further. It can also be explained through Newton first law Every object remains at rest or in motion in a straight line at constant speed unless it is forced to change its state by an external force if we check this law, an external force (brake force) is required to change the state of the vehicle (motion to rest). As this law explained the evaluation of the brake force and system of braking, a further law explains how the brake force will stop the vehicle. Law of thermodynamics: Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed; it will be converted from one form of energy to other form. This explained the frictional force (brake force) is converted into the heat energy. Factors considered while Braking: There are many factors to be considered for the high braking efficiency and performance; here we will see the few important factors which have a more effect on braking efficiency. 1. Condition of disc rotor: An uneven disc or ruffed disc rotor will decrease the braking effect; it has to be very well maintained as few a times due to dust and weather a extra layer is formed on the disc surface which will have a negative effect on the braking concept. Or wear of disc rotor due to overheat. 2. Pressure on brake rotor: A sufficient amount of brake pressure is to be maintained to get enough frictional force to stop the vehicle. If less pressure is applied it will directly affect the brake efficiency as force acting on the two rubbing surface will become less. 3. Contact surface: The area of contact between the brake pads and disc rotor should be more then the high friction is obtained. If lining of brake pads or surface of disc rotor is uneven then area of contact will be less, which will affect the brake efficiency. 4. Tyres: The design of tyre also have a normal affect on the brake efficiency, the more the contact of tyre to the road surface the good will be the braking system. Worn tyres will have less braking action and will not allow vehicle to stop the required point and may also skid, braking action is found high in new tyres due to its more contact with the road surface. There are other factors which also play an crucial part in brake efficiency like aerodynamics, heat dissipation, weight of body etc., Causes of failure: The most commonly found causes for the brake failure are 1. Oil or grease on the brakes will cause failure as it interferes with the friction. If we found oil in brakes mean the oil seal has failed and is why oil is leaking. 2. Overheat of brakes to great degree, which will develop a hot spot on the rotor and drums. This spots will resist the friction from brake shoe and pads, therefore braking power is lost and brake fails. 3. Brake squeal which indicates the tear in the brake pads, by the time the brakes start making a grinding sound, they would have worn out past the pads to rotors. This will require to change more than just brake pads for new one, which will increase replacement cost as well. 4. Improper wheel alignment or disturbance in the steering system will also lead into the failure of brakes. Even if the mass of vehicle will get out of its range due to extra load will cause a brake failure due to the uneven load distribution. DISC BRAKE Introduction: Disc brakes came into existence in 1890s in England. But due to the poor state of roads and dusty conditions the disc and pads use to get rust and get wear, so the system got non-viable at that time. But later it was fully adopted in 1950s with new innovations in the previous design. Many companies started using it in their cars as it was better when to compared with drum brakes, the main reason as it has overcome the brake fade problem by providing the resistance to the brake components and overall performance is better when compared with drum brakes.   Disc brakes become popular in sports cars due to its braking performance. Now it has been common in commercial vehicles as well, as its used at front of the vehicles, as the front brakes perform most of the braking effort. Components: A disc brake assembly consists of a 1. Cast-iron disc (disc rotor) that rotates with the wheel. 2. Calliper assembly attached to the steering knuckle (operated mechanically or hydraulically). 3. Friction materials (disc pads) that are mounted to the calliper assembly. Operation: (Hydraulically powered) Disc brakes prove to be efficient when compared with drum brakes even the working principle is same for both systems. The basic principle of braking system The kinetic energy is converted into heat energy   When brake pedal is pressed, the hydraulic pressure is applied on the piston; it pushes the brake pad to get in contact with the disc. As the pressure increases the calliper pushes the outside pad to get in contact with the disc. Due the friction generated between pads and disc will create the braking force as the pads gets in contact fully with the disc rotor. But if we study the disc brakes widely, it shows that it does not use the much of the friction between the lining and rotor to increase the braking power as drum brakes does, they likely cause a pull between them. Disc brakes have constrained self-energizing action, there has to be sufficient hydraulic pressure to get the required braking force. The braking force can be increased by changing the size of calliper piston. Even less heat dissipation occurs as the friction surface is exposed to the air, which also reduces the braking fade.   Design of disc rotor: generally disc rotors are either solid or ventilated. The ventilated type disc rotor has cooling fins in the middle of the disc to ensure good cooling. Proper cooling ensures longer pad life and it also prevents fading. Some ventilated rotors have spiral fins which allow more air flow and better cooling. These fins are mounted on side of the vehicle and directional. Spiral fins are used in the front of the vehicles as front brakes take most of the braking action as more heat generates. Ref: https://pontiworld.com.au Design of calliper: The calliper are used as floating calliper or fixed calliper design, and these are mounted on the axle or attached to the wheel. Floating calliper type: The calliper are used as floating calliper or fixed calliper design, and these are mounted on the axle or attached to the wheel. this type of calliper requires less parts than the other type and its also less in weight and economical. Based on requirement it consists of one or two pistons. The piston is either side of the calliper. Hydraulic pressure from the main cylinder is generated and the piston thus press the brake pad towards the disc, then instantly an equal hydraulic pressure is generated at the other side and right brake pad pushed towards disc rotor and vehicle stops due to the braking force. Fixed calliper type: The calliper are used as floating calliper or fixed calliper design, and these are mounted on the axle or attached to the wheel. This type of calliper design has piston on both sides of the calliper, which provides the equal force to each brake pad. These fixed calliper types can set-up either one or two pistons on each side. The two pistons can generate a more braking force and a compact design, as these absorb and dissipate more heat, due to its size and weight. This design is capable for greater number of hard stops of short brakes without the effect of brake fade. Materials used for component: The material used for disc rotor plays an important role in braking force. The material should be tuff enough to stand on high pressures and high friction forces. Generally cast iron is used for disc rotor commercially, but ceramic discs are used for high-performance vehicles and heavy automobiles. Recent study shows that aluminium alloys also do a great job as disc. Now we will discuss in detail about the commonly used materials cast iron and aluminium alloys. Cast iron: Grey cast iron alloy is used for the manufacturing of disc rotor; it has superior properties and various advantages over other materials, as it best suitable for manufacturing and machining when compared with other materials which lead to the graphite lubricating the cut and breaking the chips. It contains 2.5%-4% of carbon and greater than 2% of silicon.   This material has good wear resistance and galling which leads to self lubricating due to the graphite flakes. The graphite microstructure of grey cast iron allows less shrinkage. The silicon percentage in the grey cast iron makes the material corrosion resistance and increases its fluidity when casting which also makes material easy to weld. Compared with other alloys of the cast iron, grey cast iron has low tensile strength , the good point about this material is the shock and impact resistance is almost doesnt exist. Here we will see the properties of the grey cast iron for ASTM 60, Tensile strength 62.5 Kpsi Compressive strength 187.5 Kpsi Shear modulus of rupture 88.5 Kpsi Modulus of elasticity ( Tension ) 20.4 - 23.5 Mpsi Modulus of elasticity ( Torsion ) 7.8 - 8.5 Mpsi Endurance Limit 24.5 Kpsi Brinerll Hardness 302 H_b Specific heat 447 j/kg deg Ref: http://www.engineershandbook.com Characteristics of Grey cast iron: Wear resistance: Grey cast iron works as excellent resistance to sliding friction wear, it is widely used for manufacturing of sliding components, most of the automobile components are made up of this item, its all because of the low coefficient of friction, resistance to the galling it has which is due to the effect of graphite flakes . This will help the disc rotor to withstand for high friction forces. Thermal conductivity: The important merit of grey cast iron is its high thermal conductivity, due to its flake graphite structure, heat dissipates occurs in material with good rate. This will increase the cooling of the disc rotor Machinability: Due to the ferrite graphite structure, grey cast iron is simplest and easiest alloys for machining and casting. This will make easy to get the typical designs of the disc rotor with spiral and fins Damping capacity: Grey cast iron has high ability to absorb vibration energy and also damping vibrations, which is due to the high percentage of the graphite flakes it has in it. It also has great property to resist high frequency vibrations. This will help disc rotor Aluminium Alloys: Aluminium is the important alloy of aluminium alloys, were the other metals are copper, silicon and magnesium. It has less tensile strength and low melting pointing. It has good casting characteristics due to its great levels of silicon (4-13%) in it. It is widely used as disc rotor due to its corrosion resistance.   But this is quite expensive when compared with cast iron. Though is in light in weight, has good electrical and thermal conductivity. It does also can be recyclable. All these properties brought a change in many industries to change their traditional materials i.e., aluminium alloys. Characteristics of aluminium alloys: Light weight: The best part of this material is its light in weight, actually its one third of steel in weight, due to its specific weight of 2.7 g/cm3. The more the energy consumed by aluminium the high will be the load capacity of the vehicle.   This will decrease the vibrations and also increases the brake efficiency due to its light weight. Properties of the aluminium alloys: Density 2600-2800 kg/m3 Melting point 660 deg Elastic modulus 70-79 Gpa Poisson's ratio 0.33 Tensile Strength 230-570 Mpa Yield Strength 215-505 Mpa Percent Elongation 10-25% Thermal expansion coefficient 20.4 -25.0 10-6 /k Thermal conductivity: its used in most of the high conductivity line like power transmission, it has twice of the copper in the properties, and its a good conductor of heat and electricity. This will increase the heat dissipation of the disc rotor. Ductility and recyclability: Due to the lower density and melting point, the material is considered as ductile, this will help to the complicated design, as we need in the disc rotor with spiral fins and groves for the air dissipation. Recyclability is also one great factor of aluminium as it consumes only 5% of the energy to melt it, and it doesnt affect its original quality of aluminium. Corrosion resistance: This is the main factor which made it to select for disc rotor manufacturing. It has a natural property of corrosion resistant as it surfaces form an oxide coating on it. While using as disc rotor further surface treatments like lacquering and anodising are done to increase its resistance towards corrosion. Major problems with Disc Brakes: The disc rotor of Disc Brakes is more exposed to the air, due to which there are very frequent chances of getting damaged. Usually this damage of disc rotor is explained in four common ways warping, cracking, rusting and scarring. Few a times the damage takes the disc into the unsafe area then the new disc is replaced with damaged ones. But sometimes using simple machining and other process this damages can be overcome. As scratches or damage on disc rotor can be removed by removing the thin layer on the disc on lathe machine if after that the thickness of the disc falls in the safe dimensions for the braking force. Warping: This is caused due to the excessive heat of the friction area of the disc rotor, due to excessive shorthand braking, uneven cooling of disc may also causes warping. If braking pads get into contact of disc excessively this will lead to warping after certain times, this warping is most commonly found in the racing cars as brakes are used very frequently due to speed and used at high gear times. There are few methods which can avoid the warping, braking at lower gear which will help to reduce the braking load on the brakes, and less heat is generated. The more the braking load, the more the heat generated and more the chances of improper cooling to take place. Changing the disc design with more fins can few times avoids warping. Improper installation of disc rotor may also leads to the warping as only the overwhelmed disc will come in contact with the brake pads. Cracking: This is found mainly in the drilled disc. Cracking occurs mostly around the edges and holes of the disc, due to the uneven expansion in severe environments. As the uneven expansion take place and the braking load varies every time the brake is applied which will lead to the cracking. And in several situations the disc will fail and no possible repair can be done. Even cracking can be overcome by maintaining proper the cooling of the disc and proper heat dissipation. If cracking is become severe then there might be a chance to replace the disc rotor. Rusting: This is found in the vehicle which are not used for period of time, the regular use keeps the friction area clean, but when not in use the friction area and slots get rusted and it reduces the braking power, due to which the strength of the disc also falls down and at this conditions disc should replace with new one. Scarring: Scarring occurs if something hard gets in contact with the disc while moving, which forms a hard spot on the disc, which reduces the braking power and weakens the brake. Generally this happens when the brake pad service life come to end and still its attached to the brake set-up then the steel support of the brake pad get in contact with the disc which creates a hard scratch. These scratches will form black slots when a vehicle come in use, and reduces the structure strength. This can be avoided by regular checking of brake pads checking life of the friction layer, machining the disc to remove the layer on surface of disc which removes the scratches. There are few phenomenal problems which has been a challenging task in braking department like brake squeal, brake judder and brake dust. These problems can be dangerous when they get on excessively. Change of design, material, brake assembly setup all these have been checked extensively to find out the perfect solution for these problems, this project is undertaken based on this problems. Lets discuss in detail about these problems and what are the methods being simplified to overcome it. Brake Squeal: squeal mean noise, this brake noise is a vehicle system problem due to the regularity and severity. The noise generated is mainly because of brake and suspension components together. This is not considered as the main problem to the vehicle were performance is the initial objective, but its not so proper for the road use. This noise is mainly between the pad and disc during the braking. But squeal can also be combination of disc, calliper and brake pads. To avoid squeal under the braking condition is not so possible, if we are assuming brake to absorb very high energy inputs. Actually this brake squeal came into account when front wheel drive and metallic brakes arrived. These metallic pads are harder than asbestos counterparts, and thus more squeal is observed if there are more irregularities and roughness on the rotor surface or if you found looseness between the pads and callipers. Few types of calliper designs are more noisier, if the pads of this callipers are not fitted so tightly and the calliper itself move around when brakes are applied. The more the brakes play the more are the chances of noise. Fixing the squeal problems in wrong way can lead to the squeal more worse. Brake squeal also occurs due to vibration of brake pads towards the disc rotor when vehicle is moving at low speed, this may not affect the braking performance much but will lead to the replacement of brake pads, this is very common problem which most of the vehicles are facing now.   Lot of methods are used to reduce the level of noise,   simple methods like having chamfers to the linings, applying grease between the pads and calliper, adding the brake shim between   the brake back plate and brake pads etc., these may help in some way to reduce the noise. Ref: http://www.aa1car.com/library/bsqueal.htm While using the methods to reduce the brake noise, have to assume the vehicle suspension system which acts more on the braking system, but at the end the squeal is avoided by trial and error method. Although we see an efficient improvement in understanding the actual reason for the brake squeal, it has been difficult to solve it. It was easily verified through the design and study to overcome the squeal, but it was different case practically. The failure was mainly caused because of the dynamic behaviour of the braking system and due to the gap between braking components. The easiest way was using high temperature Effects of Material on Braking Abilities Effects of Material on Braking Abilities Abstract: The most important utility in our lives as of today is automobiles, there is a lot of research and development is going in every section of the automobile field to give the safest possible vehicle to the world. One such is Brakes section; this is very important part in every vehicle, though we have most accurate and efficient brakes now-a-days, but they fail at the extreme conditions of heat , vibrations , high frequencies etc., this project is mainly concentrated on the aspects which are causing adverse affect to fail and create unusual   disturbances in the brakes. One such is brake squeal, an unwanted sound which is caused due to the vibration of the brake pads against the disc generating the high pitch noise. There are few other problems which leads into the high frequency problems, vibrations, tear in the brake disc etc. Here in this project a detailed study of disc brake is taken into account by considering with two different materials cast iron and aluminium alloy. The performance of brake is studies using normal stress analysis, vibration analysis and thermal analysis. The main problem of squeal can be due to the combination of vibration in brake set-up from callipers to the brake discs. And can also due to the uneven surfaces of the brake disc which causes due to the improper heat dissipation in the brake disc, all this problems are kept into consideration and this analysis are carried out for brake disc with two different materials as mentioned. A simple change in the design of brake disc has also been done for the maximum heat dissipation and this design also studied in this extreme conditions. And these two type brake disc are compared in all its possibly calculated attributes and the best one is concluded. Introduction: An automobile is a creation of history when they started and now it has become a crucial part of the world. Automobile is a wheeled motor vehicle used for transporting passengers, good etc. There has been a lot of improvement in the automotive field in all ways from the past few decades. The main aim of the automotive department is to provide safest vehicle from its design to the material used for each component. Every single thing is decided on basis of the effect of it on the human lives. The vehicles we use are very efficient when compared with older generation vehicles, the safety increases with the development and technology. But there are few problems which are yet to be solved. One such is about brakes, as we know BRAKES are the most important part in the every moving body, we have seen very drastic improvement in the methods of braking system. In olden days the brakes were handled by hand and now we have disc brakes and hydraulic brakes.   But the whole concept of brakes is working on same principle of kinetic energy is converted into heat energy. We find brakes very commonly used in cars, bikes, aeroplanes, automated machines etc. Brake is a device which decelerates the vehicle or machine by converting its kinetic energy into other form of energy, which will bring the vehicle down to the rest. We have disc brakes now which require very less amount of effort and time to stop the vehicle due to its accuracy and sensitivity; this are widely used in vehicles now-a-days. The drum brakes were used for very long time and we use even now, these were also very efficient brakes but due to the very common issues of changing the brake pads very often due to the short hand braking or improper usage, this has been replaced by disc or hydraulic in few machines. But we have found very common issues in disc brakes due to the brake rotor and brake pads. Due to the high friction while short braking we get unwanted noise brake squeal, though it doesnt have much effect on the performance of the vehicle, but it may fail the brake due to the tear o f brake disc or brake pads. A detailed study of each problem will be studied in further report taking disc brake system. History of Brakes: Invention of brake has started with the automated machines; brakes came into light mainly when the motorised wheeled vehicles came into existence. Brakes were not only used in the vehicles, these are used in other machines as brake lever to stop the motion rotor and so on. It has been an essential part of the moving systems. Brakes have developed a lot from first generation vehicles to present time. Early braking systems used steel rimmed wheels to stop the vehicle, which consists of curved wooden block designed to bear against the steel tire when operated by a single leverage system from the driver seat. But the brake shoe used was normal way of braking either in the horse drawn vehicle or steam locomotive. In 1895 Michelin Brothers move a step ahead to replace the steel rimmed wheels with the pneumatic rubber tire to come out with a new braking system as the brake shoes were no longer satisfactory.   A new method of braking system was required in those times as two early devices attempted to apply the friction force to the axle or to drum on axle or transmission shaft were not efficient as wanted. One method was use of wooden block inside a flexible contracting metal band which when pressed together would tighten the drum causing friction between the drum, which is connected to the wooden block and w heel, then the vehicle gets slow down. The other method was inner wheel or brake drum which will add an external contracting band to bear against the drum to bring the vehicle to rest. In 1899 Daimler started cable operated braking system; a cable was wound around a drum and attached to the chassis, so that when the cable is tightened when car was moving forward, the rotation of drum will increase the tightness and grip of cable, so that it will reduce the amount of force required to pull the cable-lever on the pedal to stop the moving vehicle. This brake system worked well but still the braking efficiency was less, the added efficiency called servo assistance is still an important factor in drum brakes even today. The external brake was vulnerable to the atmospheric conditions like weathering and to un-even roads which caused a rapid loss of efficiency and wear of the brake shoe lining and on few times automatic brake use to happen due to the drum expansion. To overcome all these problems an internal shoe brake was developed were the expanding the brake shoes were placed the inside the brake drum, mainly to protect from the dust and weather. Originally early brakes were operated by mechanically, i.e. the transformation by mechanical system was used to expand the brake shoes against drum by the drivers effort applied on the brake pedal. It works by pressing the brake pedal, which make cam to rotate by a lever connected to pedal, which forces the shoes to come on contact with the brake drum. And springs attached to both of the brake shoes to retain the original position when brakes are released. As the early brakes use to operate on lever supported cables and linkage system of fixed rods, equalising the same amount of brake pressure on the wheels has presented many problems , which were solved when hydraulic system was introduced, which used fluid to transfer the force applied to the brake pedal. In hydraulic braking system the set-up of cylinders and pipe lines forms a closed system which is filled with fluid. The pressure generated in master cylinder will transmit equal force to the each wheel cylinder and then equal pressure is applied to all brake shoes. This hydraulic system is used with the disc brake as well. Disc brake is more efficient braking system which was used mostly sports car when introduced but now it has been a very common system in passenger vehicles. It has a disc and a calliper is attached to it which can be operated mechanically, hydraulically, pneumatically, electromagnetically. Types of brakes: The brakes are broadly explained as using friction, pumping or electromagnetism. But one brake system can also use more than one principle. As the project is based on the disc brake we will look forward only to discuss about the frictional brake. Frictional brakes: These types of brakes are mostly rotating devices with a stationary pad attached with a rotating surface. These types of brakes are widely used even now in modern automotive braking system. Basically this are developed from band brakes to drum brakes then to the disc brakes. Band brakes: A simple type of brake, works on a principle that a band is wrapped round the rotating drum. When a force is applied on the lever, the restraining torque is found from the difference in tension between the two ends of the belt. The principle of operation of the band brake is same as for belt drives. This is external type braking system, as we see in picture the brake shoe are mounted on the drum. Ref: http://school.mech.uwa.edu.au/~dwright/DANotes/brakes/intro/intro.html Drum shoe brakes: This type of brake usually mean the brake shoe is mounted to press the inside surface of the drum. Two brake shoes are connected with a calliper set-up; it has lining on it which will create a frictional force when pressed towards the moving surface of the vehicle. These types of drum brakes are still used in modern cars due to the some cost and engineering benefits. These are applied to the rear wheels of today cars. Ref: http://school.mech.uwa.edu.au/~dwright/DANotes/brakes/intro/intro.html Disc Brake: these most widely used brake of these days, A disc is mounted on the wheel or axle and brake pads are placed within the jaws of the calliper, this is give the necessary friction when it will grip on the brake disc. Ref: http://static.howstuffworks.com/gif/disc-brake3.jpg Characteristics of brakes: Brakes are described on basis of several characteristics as Peak force: The maximum force obtained to decelerate the vehicle is called peak force. Few times this can be more than the traction limit of tires, then the wheel gets skid Continuous Power dissipation: As we know that the brakes get hot in use and get fail when the temperature gets too high, the maximum amount of power that dissipates through the brake without failure is the continuous power dissipation. Fade: Due to the over heat of the brakes the surface of the brake pads or disc get fade which will cause decrease in the effectiveness of brakes. Few times even cooling will have big effect on to fade. Power: when a very less force leads to the braking force, which is higher than the other brakes in similar class then its stated as powerful brake, which is due to the sensitivity of the brake system. Durability: Friction brakes have the lining which has wear surfaces, these to be renewed periodically.   Like brake shoes, pads or brake disc. Even if wear surface due to brake shoe generates high peak force this will lead to wear quickly. Weight: In some circumstances brakes are often mounted on wheels, this can disturb the traction significantly. Here weight means brake itself or an additional support structure Noise: generally brakes create some minor noise when applied, but sometimes create a high pitch noise called squeal or grinding noise. Principles of braking system: Brakes work on simple principle to slow down the moving vehicle by applying an external force, it may use more than one component; directly or indirectly several components effect on the momentum of the moving vehicle. Various types of process are used for braking effect. Frictional brakes are most commonly used these days, these works on the simple mechanism of changing the kinetic energy into the heat energy, which is done by only factor friction. Friction is created when a stationary brake pad grips on the moving brake disc with a force applied. This type of braking system is also used in the disc brakes; the stationary brake pads rub on the disc rotor which moves relatively in its own axis. Basic laws of braking system: Braking system can be explained by two simple Newton laws; which will explain the whole concept of the braking system As we know that the Newtons second law The net force on an object is equal to the its mass times its acceleration and points in the direction of the acceleration F = m* a The law is used to find out the net force required by brake pads to bring the moving vehicle to rest, tough there are many other factors to be considered for calculation of brake force which will be discussed further. It can also be explained through Newton first law Every object remains at rest or in motion in a straight line at constant speed unless it is forced to change its state by an external force if we check this law, an external force (brake force) is required to change the state of the vehicle (motion to rest). As this law explained the evaluation of the brake force and system of braking, a further law explains how the brake force will stop the vehicle. Law of thermodynamics: Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed; it will be converted from one form of energy to other form. This explained the frictional force (brake force) is converted into the heat energy. Factors considered while Braking: There are many factors to be considered for the high braking efficiency and performance; here we will see the few important factors which have a more effect on braking efficiency. 1. Condition of disc rotor: An uneven disc or ruffed disc rotor will decrease the braking effect; it has to be very well maintained as few a times due to dust and weather a extra layer is formed on the disc surface which will have a negative effect on the braking concept. Or wear of disc rotor due to overheat. 2. Pressure on brake rotor: A sufficient amount of brake pressure is to be maintained to get enough frictional force to stop the vehicle. If less pressure is applied it will directly affect the brake efficiency as force acting on the two rubbing surface will become less. 3. Contact surface: The area of contact between the brake pads and disc rotor should be more then the high friction is obtained. If lining of brake pads or surface of disc rotor is uneven then area of contact will be less, which will affect the brake efficiency. 4. Tyres: The design of tyre also have a normal affect on the brake efficiency, the more the contact of tyre to the road surface the good will be the braking system. Worn tyres will have less braking action and will not allow vehicle to stop the required point and may also skid, braking action is found high in new tyres due to its more contact with the road surface. There are other factors which also play an crucial part in brake efficiency like aerodynamics, heat dissipation, weight of body etc., Causes of failure: The most commonly found causes for the brake failure are 1. Oil or grease on the brakes will cause failure as it interferes with the friction. If we found oil in brakes mean the oil seal has failed and is why oil is leaking. 2. Overheat of brakes to great degree, which will develop a hot spot on the rotor and drums. This spots will resist the friction from brake shoe and pads, therefore braking power is lost and brake fails. 3. Brake squeal which indicates the tear in the brake pads, by the time the brakes start making a grinding sound, they would have worn out past the pads to rotors. This will require to change more than just brake pads for new one, which will increase replacement cost as well. 4. Improper wheel alignment or disturbance in the steering system will also lead into the failure of brakes. Even if the mass of vehicle will get out of its range due to extra load will cause a brake failure due to the uneven load distribution. DISC BRAKE Introduction: Disc brakes came into existence in 1890s in England. But due to the poor state of roads and dusty conditions the disc and pads use to get rust and get wear, so the system got non-viable at that time. But later it was fully adopted in 1950s with new innovations in the previous design. Many companies started using it in their cars as it was better when to compared with drum brakes, the main reason as it has overcome the brake fade problem by providing the resistance to the brake components and overall performance is better when compared with drum brakes.   Disc brakes become popular in sports cars due to its braking performance. Now it has been common in commercial vehicles as well, as its used at front of the vehicles, as the front brakes perform most of the braking effort. Components: A disc brake assembly consists of a 1. Cast-iron disc (disc rotor) that rotates with the wheel. 2. Calliper assembly attached to the steering knuckle (operated mechanically or hydraulically). 3. Friction materials (disc pads) that are mounted to the calliper assembly. Operation: (Hydraulically powered) Disc brakes prove to be efficient when compared with drum brakes even the working principle is same for both systems. The basic principle of braking system The kinetic energy is converted into heat energy   When brake pedal is pressed, the hydraulic pressure is applied on the piston; it pushes the brake pad to get in contact with the disc. As the pressure increases the calliper pushes the outside pad to get in contact with the disc. Due the friction generated between pads and disc will create the braking force as the pads gets in contact fully with the disc rotor. But if we study the disc brakes widely, it shows that it does not use the much of the friction between the lining and rotor to increase the braking power as drum brakes does, they likely cause a pull between them. Disc brakes have constrained self-energizing action, there has to be sufficient hydraulic pressure to get the required braking force. The braking force can be increased by changing the size of calliper piston. Even less heat dissipation occurs as the friction surface is exposed to the air, which also reduces the braking fade.   Design of disc rotor: generally disc rotors are either solid or ventilated. The ventilated type disc rotor has cooling fins in the middle of the disc to ensure good cooling. Proper cooling ensures longer pad life and it also prevents fading. Some ventilated rotors have spiral fins which allow more air flow and better cooling. These fins are mounted on side of the vehicle and directional. Spiral fins are used in the front of the vehicles as front brakes take most of the braking action as more heat generates. Ref: https://pontiworld.com.au Design of calliper: The calliper are used as floating calliper or fixed calliper design, and these are mounted on the axle or attached to the wheel. Floating calliper type: The calliper are used as floating calliper or fixed calliper design, and these are mounted on the axle or attached to the wheel. this type of calliper requires less parts than the other type and its also less in weight and economical. Based on requirement it consists of one or two pistons. The piston is either side of the calliper. Hydraulic pressure from the main cylinder is generated and the piston thus press the brake pad towards the disc, then instantly an equal hydraulic pressure is generated at the other side and right brake pad pushed towards disc rotor and vehicle stops due to the braking force. Fixed calliper type: The calliper are used as floating calliper or fixed calliper design, and these are mounted on the axle or attached to the wheel. This type of calliper design has piston on both sides of the calliper, which provides the equal force to each brake pad. These fixed calliper types can set-up either one or two pistons on each side. The two pistons can generate a more braking force and a compact design, as these absorb and dissipate more heat, due to its size and weight. This design is capable for greater number of hard stops of short brakes without the effect of brake fade. Materials used for component: The material used for disc rotor plays an important role in braking force. The material should be tuff enough to stand on high pressures and high friction forces. Generally cast iron is used for disc rotor commercially, but ceramic discs are used for high-performance vehicles and heavy automobiles. Recent study shows that aluminium alloys also do a great job as disc. Now we will discuss in detail about the commonly used materials cast iron and aluminium alloys. Cast iron: Grey cast iron alloy is used for the manufacturing of disc rotor; it has superior properties and various advantages over other materials, as it best suitable for manufacturing and machining when compared with other materials which lead to the graphite lubricating the cut and breaking the chips. It contains 2.5%-4% of carbon and greater than 2% of silicon.   This material has good wear resistance and galling which leads to self lubricating due to the graphite flakes. The graphite microstructure of grey cast iron allows less shrinkage. The silicon percentage in the grey cast iron makes the material corrosion resistance and increases its fluidity when casting which also makes material easy to weld. Compared with other alloys of the cast iron, grey cast iron has low tensile strength , the good point about this material is the shock and impact resistance is almost doesnt exist. Here we will see the properties of the grey cast iron for ASTM 60, Tensile strength 62.5 Kpsi Compressive strength 187.5 Kpsi Shear modulus of rupture 88.5 Kpsi Modulus of elasticity ( Tension ) 20.4 - 23.5 Mpsi Modulus of elasticity ( Torsion ) 7.8 - 8.5 Mpsi Endurance Limit 24.5 Kpsi Brinerll Hardness 302 H_b Specific heat 447 j/kg deg Ref: http://www.engineershandbook.com Characteristics of Grey cast iron: Wear resistance: Grey cast iron works as excellent resistance to sliding friction wear, it is widely used for manufacturing of sliding components, most of the automobile components are made up of this item, its all because of the low coefficient of friction, resistance to the galling it has which is due to the effect of graphite flakes . This will help the disc rotor to withstand for high friction forces. Thermal conductivity: The important merit of grey cast iron is its high thermal conductivity, due to its flake graphite structure, heat dissipates occurs in material with good rate. This will increase the cooling of the disc rotor Machinability: Due to the ferrite graphite structure, grey cast iron is simplest and easiest alloys for machining and casting. This will make easy to get the typical designs of the disc rotor with spiral and fins Damping capacity: Grey cast iron has high ability to absorb vibration energy and also damping vibrations, which is due to the high percentage of the graphite flakes it has in it. It also has great property to resist high frequency vibrations. This will help disc rotor Aluminium Alloys: Aluminium is the important alloy of aluminium alloys, were the other metals are copper, silicon and magnesium. It has less tensile strength and low melting pointing. It has good casting characteristics due to its great levels of silicon (4-13%) in it. It is widely used as disc rotor due to its corrosion resistance.   But this is quite expensive when compared with cast iron. Though is in light in weight, has good electrical and thermal conductivity. It does also can be recyclable. All these properties brought a change in many industries to change their traditional materials i.e., aluminium alloys. Characteristics of aluminium alloys: Light weight: The best part of this material is its light in weight, actually its one third of steel in weight, due to its specific weight of 2.7 g/cm3. The more the energy consumed by aluminium the high will be the load capacity of the vehicle.   This will decrease the vibrations and also increases the brake efficiency due to its light weight. Properties of the aluminium alloys: Density 2600-2800 kg/m3 Melting point 660 deg Elastic modulus 70-79 Gpa Poisson's ratio 0.33 Tensile Strength 230-570 Mpa Yield Strength 215-505 Mpa Percent Elongation 10-25% Thermal expansion coefficient 20.4 -25.0 10-6 /k Thermal conductivity: its used in most of the high conductivity line like power transmission, it has twice of the copper in the properties, and its a good conductor of heat and electricity. This will increase the heat dissipation of the disc rotor. Ductility and recyclability: Due to the lower density and melting point, the material is considered as ductile, this will help to the complicated design, as we need in the disc rotor with spiral fins and groves for the air dissipation. Recyclability is also one great factor of aluminium as it consumes only 5% of the energy to melt it, and it doesnt affect its original quality of aluminium. Corrosion resistance: This is the main factor which made it to select for disc rotor manufacturing. It has a natural property of corrosion resistant as it surfaces form an oxide coating on it. While using as disc rotor further surface treatments like lacquering and anodising are done to increase its resistance towards corrosion. Major problems with Disc Brakes: The disc rotor of Disc Brakes is more exposed to the air, due to which there are very frequent chances of getting damaged. Usually this damage of disc rotor is explained in four common ways warping, cracking, rusting and scarring. Few a times the damage takes the disc into the unsafe area then the new disc is replaced with damaged ones. But sometimes using simple machining and other process this damages can be overcome. As scratches or damage on disc rotor can be removed by removing the thin layer on the disc on lathe machine if after that the thickness of the disc falls in the safe dimensions for the braking force. Warping: This is caused due to the excessive heat of the friction area of the disc rotor, due to excessive shorthand braking, uneven cooling of disc may also causes warping. If braking pads get into contact of disc excessively this will lead to warping after certain times, this warping is most commonly found in the racing cars as brakes are used very frequently due to speed and used at high gear times. There are few methods which can avoid the warping, braking at lower gear which will help to reduce the braking load on the brakes, and less heat is generated. The more the braking load, the more the heat generated and more the chances of improper cooling to take place. Changing the disc design with more fins can few times avoids warping. Improper installation of disc rotor may also leads to the warping as only the overwhelmed disc will come in contact with the brake pads. Cracking: This is found mainly in the drilled disc. Cracking occurs mostly around the edges and holes of the disc, due to the uneven expansion in severe environments. As the uneven expansion take place and the braking load varies every time the brake is applied which will lead to the cracking. And in several situations the disc will fail and no possible repair can be done. Even cracking can be overcome by maintaining proper the cooling of the disc and proper heat dissipation. If cracking is become severe then there might be a chance to replace the disc rotor. Rusting: This is found in the vehicle which are not used for period of time, the regular use keeps the friction area clean, but when not in use the friction area and slots get rusted and it reduces the braking power, due to which the strength of the disc also falls down and at this conditions disc should replace with new one. Scarring: Scarring occurs if something hard gets in contact with the disc while moving, which forms a hard spot on the disc, which reduces the braking power and weakens the brake. Generally this happens when the brake pad service life come to end and still its attached to the brake set-up then the steel support of the brake pad get in contact with the disc which creates a hard scratch. These scratches will form black slots when a vehicle come in use, and reduces the structure strength. This can be avoided by regular checking of brake pads checking life of the friction layer, machining the disc to remove the layer on surface of disc which removes the scratches. There are few phenomenal problems which has been a challenging task in braking department like brake squeal, brake judder and brake dust. These problems can be dangerous when they get on excessively. Change of design, material, brake assembly setup all these have been checked extensively to find out the perfect solution for these problems, this project is undertaken based on this problems. Lets discuss in detail about these problems and what are the methods being simplified to overcome it. Brake Squeal: squeal mean noise, this brake noise is a vehicle system problem due to the regularity and severity. The noise generated is mainly because of brake and suspension components together. This is not considered as the main problem to the vehicle were performance is the initial objective, but its not so proper for the road use. This noise is mainly between the pad and disc during the braking. But squeal can also be combination of disc, calliper and brake pads. To avoid squeal under the braking condition is not so possible, if we are assuming brake to absorb very high energy inputs. Actually this brake squeal came into account when front wheel drive and metallic brakes arrived. These metallic pads are harder than asbestos counterparts, and thus more squeal is observed if there are more irregularities and roughness on the rotor surface or if you found looseness between the pads and callipers. Few types of calliper designs are more noisier, if the pads of this callipers are not fitted so tightly and the calliper itself move around when brakes are applied. The more the brakes play the more are the chances of noise. Fixing the squeal problems in wrong way can lead to the squeal more worse. Brake squeal also occurs due to vibration of brake pads towards the disc rotor when vehicle is moving at low speed, this may not affect the braking performance much but will lead to the replacement of brake pads, this is very common problem which most of the vehicles are facing now.   Lot of methods are used to reduce the level of noise,   simple methods like having chamfers to the linings, applying grease between the pads and calliper, adding the brake shim between   the brake back plate and brake pads etc., these may help in some way to reduce the noise. Ref: http://www.aa1car.com/library/bsqueal.htm While using the methods to reduce the brake noise, have to assume the vehicle suspension system which acts more on the braking system, but at the end the squeal is avoided by trial and error method. Although we see an efficient improvement in understanding the actual reason for the brake squeal, it has been difficult to solve it. It was easily verified through the design and study to overcome the squeal, but it was different case practically. The failure was mainly caused because of the dynamic behaviour of the braking system and due to the gap between braking components. The easiest way was using high temperature